COSMIC RAYS VELOCITIES EXCEED CONSIDERABLY THE SPEED OF LIGHT (c)

COSMIC RAYS VELOCITIES EXCEED CONSIDERABLY THE SPEED OF LIGHT (c)
Firm evidence of the Newtonian constancy of Length, Time and Mass
J.J.H. SAMRA (LA PLATA National University, Argentina)

ABSTRACT

As it is known, since the publication of the Special Theory of Relativity in 1905, the contraction of length has not yet been verified.
However, each one of the following astronomical experiments detailed below, unambiguously confirms the Newtonian constancy of length, which means that the Relativistic contraction of length does not exist.

Consequently the Relativistic formula for length contraction: L = L_O /g becomes erroneous in the full range of velocities: from nonzero speed up to the speed of light (c), implicating small errors for small speeds, and increasing errors at higher velocities.

The referred astronomical experiments (detailed below) have been performed with the aid of a special DEVICE (shown in Fig. 1), which operates in complete agreement with the principles of Relativity. Therefore it has the capability to measure the length contraction correctly.

Once the Newtonian constancy of length is confirmed, which means that the Relativistic length contraction does not exist, the demonstration of the Newtonian constancy of time and mass becomes simple, since the Relativistic time dilation and mass increase are derived from the erroneous length contraction.

In fact, (very breafly now and detailed below),

Lorentz transformations are based on the erroneous length contraction, and time dilation is derived from the Lorentz transformations.

Therefore, Lorentz transformations and time dilation become erroneous in the mentioned full range of velocities.

The Relativistic mass increase is derived from a correct equation, where the erroneous Lorentz transformations and time dilation have been applied. Consequently, the Relativistic mass increase becomes also erroneous in the referred full range of velocities too.

CONSEQUENCIES OF THE NEWTONIAN CONSTANCY OF MASS (See section 7.)

- Velocities exceeding considerably the speed of light (c)

It is well known that individual cosmic particles with energies as high as 10²⁰ eV have been detected.

For a cosmic proton having a kinetic energy of 10¹⁴ eV, the corresponding velocity
becomes: v = 461 c. (four hundred and sixty one times the speed of light).

- The so-called "spectacular confirmation of a great increase in mass, in modern particle
accelerators" is not correct. (See Section 7d)

- Consequently the velocity of light (c), is not a speed limit.

ADDITIONAL VERIFICATION

As it is known, recent experiments, led Nature to publish: The textbooks say nothing can travel faster than light, nor even light itself. New experiments show that this is no longer true. Ref./17/

The new experiments are:
Wang L. J.: FASTER THAN LIGHT. (Laser pulse at 300 times the speed of light) /18/
Nimtz G.: FASTER THAN LIGHT. (Communication) /19/
Mugnai D.: FASTER THAN LIGHT. (Wave propagation) /20/

1. INTRODUCTION Ref. /1,2,3,4/

The Special Theory of Relativity includes the following predictions:

a) No object or signal can ever travel faster than the velocity of light (denoted by c).

b) Length contraction. It depends on the velocity v exclusively (v unique variable)
The length on a moving particle will get shorter only in the parallel direction of travel, being inversely proportional to a factor g (called gamma factor), which is dimensionless (see Eq. 1).
At right angle of the referred direction of travel the length contraction is zero.

c) Time dilation It depends on the velocity v exclusively.
Time on a moving particle will go more slowly, being inversely proportional to g (gamma factor).

d) Mass increase. It depends on the particle velocity exclusively.
The mass of a moving particle will get heavier, being directly proportional to g (gamma factor), according to the following formula (4): m = g m₀ , where m₀ is the mass at v = 0 (rest mass), measured in grams, having the same value for Relativistic and Nonrelativistic form.

Mass (m) of a moving particle at velocity v m = g m₀ (gamma factor times m₀) (4)

e) Relativistic Equation for kinetic energy. E_kin = m₀ c² ( g - 1) (5)

2. THE DEVICE SHOWN IN FIG. 1, OPERATES IN COMPLETE AGREEMENT WITH THE PRINCIPLES OF RELATIVITY. Consequently it has the capability to measure the contraction of length correctly.

The referred DEVICE includes a special load cell, with glass bars, installed in a precision pointing, computer drive system telescope.

As it is known, since the publication of the Special Theory of Relativity in 1905, the contraction of length has not yet been verified.

The following steps lead to the corresponding demonstration of the referred DEVICE capability.

a) Relativistic prediction. (See Section 1.b)
The length on a moving object will get shorter only in a parallel direction of travel, being inversely proportional to gamma factor

Contraction
of Length

Reduction
of length

Then, according to Relativity the reduction of length (DL₀ ), for a given velocity (and corresponding gamma factor), is proportional to the initial length L₀ (length at v = 0).

b) Object at rest (v = 0 ). The diameter of its atoms remain constant.
The reduction of length (DL₀ ), generates compressive stress (p).
In this case, and within the elastic limit, Hooke's law has full application.

The reduction of length of an object produces a slight displacement of its atoms, generating the referred compression stress (p). /4/ (Strain)

As it is known, here is valid the Hooke's law, which states: within the elastic limit, the reduction of length (DL₀ ) is proportional to the initial length (L₀) and to the compressive stress (p). /5/

where, 1 : E	Reduction of length, per unit length, and per unit of compressive stress
L₀ :	Initial length (length at v = 0 )
p :	Compressive stress (kg/sq cm)
E :	Modulus of elasticity (Glass: 750000 kg/sq cm)

c) Object at velocity v: Metallic object with closed packed atomic structure, like the Aluminium Load cell (Item 4, Fig. 1).
According to Relativity, there will be length contraction and its atoms will also contract in the travel direction. Therefore, the displacement of atoms that generates the compressive stress do not take place.
Then, for this case, Hooke's law should be affected by a factor f = 0

In fact, for this closed packed atomic structure, the distance from center to center of two atoms is practically the same than that of two half atoms (one atom diameter). /6/

Since both distances will have the same contraction, but in opposite directions, there will be no displacement of atoms and consequently no generation of compressive stress at any point of the Load cell, in the parallel direction of travel. (Load cell, individually considered)

d) Object at velocity v: Glass bar (Item 3 and 15, Fig. 1)
(Glass atomic structure: similar to crystal structure)
According to Relativity, the Glass bar and its atoms contract.
Due to the crystalline atomic structure there will be displacement of atoms (atoms get closer), generating compressive stress at any point of the Glass bar, in the travel direction.
Then, for this case, Hooke's law should be affected by a factor f = 0.6

In fact, denoting by:

d₀ : atom diameter at rest.
l ₀ : distance between centers of adjacent atoms in the glass bar:
a moderate average value is l₀ = 2.5 d₀ (at rest). /7/

If while l₀ contracts (due to velocity v), its atoms remain constant, the referred displacement of them would be
proportional to l₀ (equal to 2.5 d₀ ) and the efficiency of Hooke's law would be 100%. (see above point b)
However, since atoms also contract, now the mentioned displacement of atoms (atoms get closer), will be
proportional to: 2.5 d₀ - d₀ = 1.5 d₀
Then, if for a length: 2.5 d₀ corresponds 100% of efficiency, for: 1.5 d₀ the efficiency in the application of Hooke's law will be: 60%. Therefore, for this case, as stated above, Hooke's law should be affected by a factor: f = 0.6

Due to the referred generation of compressive stress at any point of the Glass bars, they behave as true
compressed springs, in the parallel direction of travel.

Erroneous argument: "The distance between atoms is an invariant"
This argument is in contradiction with physics and also with Relativity.
In fact, for a velocity of the glass bar, where gamma factor is two (2), relativity predicts: its length will be reduced by 50% and consequently if the distance between atoms is invariant, 50% of its atoms will be outside of the glass bar. As it is known, relativity also predicts that its mass will be 100% greater: (m = 2 m₀). This fact could never be performed, since 50% of its atoms are outside of the glass bar.
For any other gamma factor value, the referred contradiction will always take place.

e) The DEVICE referred to, operates in complete agreement with the principles of Relativity
In fact:
As it is known, each outer side of the Load cell, constitutes a true cantilever beam. (Ruled areas for easy reference:
Item 4, Fig. 1)
According to Relativity, the movement of the DEVICE in the parallel direction of travel, will generate the following effects:

GLASS BARS: The contraction of length generates compression stress at any point of them, in the travel direction.
(See above Point d)

METALLIC LOAD CELL: The contraction of length generates zero compressive stress and consequently zero Force, (F) at any point of it, in the travel direction. (See above Point c)

Since the Glass bars and Load cell are fixed together, all of them will operate as a single bar, contracting inward toward its center.
Therefore, the central metallic Load cell (having no compressive stress at any point), will become compressed by the Glass bars, since they behave as true compressed springs, due to the referred generation of compressive stress at any point of them, in the travel direction. (See Fig. 1a)

Then, in the referred interfaces: GLASS BARS-ALUMINIUM LOAD CELL, (contact between the ends of the Load cell: Item 12, Fig. 1, and the Glass BARS), there will be: a Force (F) from the Glass BAR toward the center of the Load cell, and zero Force (F) in the opposite direction from the metallic Load cell. (Closed packed atomic structure: see above point c)

Consequently the resultant Force (F) acting on top of each one of the cantilever beams, (see Fig. 1) will produce their deflections (extra movements due to the Relativistic Length Contraction), that activate the measuring system of the Load cell: stress generation, correct signals and load indications, in complete agreement with Relativity.

CONFIRMATION
The referred deflection of the cantilever beam, will produce in each pair of the strain gages (resistors) (Item 13, Fig. 1) : compression in one of them, and tension in the other one, which alter their resistance values, generating an electrical signal and the corresponding load indication in the Electronic Indicator. (Item 11, Fig. 1)
As it is known too, the mentioned four strain gages, are exactly the same, very small and flat, and are cemented in two planes at right angle of the direction of travel (parallel to axis y-y, Fig. 1), where the Relativistic contraction of length is zero (see Sect. 1.b) and therefore they will give correct signals in the direction of travel, and correct load indications.

As detailed above, the DEVICE operates in complete agreement with the principles of Relativity.
Consequently it has the capability to measure the contraction of length correctly.

f) Force (F): calculation
For a given velocity v, and initial length L₀ (length at v = 0), the corresponding gamma factor (g) and the Reduction of length (DL₀ ) are given by the Relativistic Eqs. (1) and (6) respectively.
The compressive stress (p) is given by the Hooke's Eq. (8), which should be affected by the mentioned factor: f = 0.6, for the reason detailed at the above point d)

Obviously the Force (F) will be: F (kg) = p. S (compressive stress p (kg/sq cm) multiplied by the cross section of the Glass BAR: S = 9.43 sq cm)

3. FIRST VERIFICATION OF THE NEWTONIAN CONSTANCY OF LENGTH
Astronomical Experiment (I): Fig. 2a and 2b

This experiment is based on the Earth's speed in its orbit, and performed in two stages, when the Sun reaches its highest point in the sky (midway between sunrise and sunset).
The telescope and the DEVICE are placed always in the horizontal plane.

a) First stage: Astronomical Experiment (I)a, Fig. 2a.
DEVICE at right angle of the direction of travel

This direction becomes the intersection of a normal plane passing through the Sun's center and the plane of horizon, at the referred highest point.
Relativistic prediction
No length contraction, at right angle of travel direction.
Result
Zero load cell indication, which confirms the above prediction.

b) Second stage: Astronomical Experiment (I)b, Fig. 2b.
DEVICE in the parallel direction of travel
Rotating now the telescope 90º, it will be in the parallel direction of travel. This operation may be performed manually, or automatically entering in the telescope computer the corresponding Altazimuth coordinates.

Earth's mean orbital speed: 29.79 km/s. /4/ (Solar System)
Maximum Earth's tangential speed: 0.465 km/s (Equatorial)
Minimum Velocity in the travel direction: 29.79 - 0.465 = 29.325 km/s
Obviously this minimum velocity (29.325 km/s) is valid for any latitude, since the maximum (equatorial) tangential speed has been deducted.
For this velocity (29.325 km/s), gamma factor (g) becomes 1.0000000048 (See Relativistic Eq. 1). Length at rest:
L₀ = 22 cm (See Fig. 1)
Contraction of Length L = 21.99999989 cm (Relativistic Eq. 2)
Reduction of Length DL₀ = 0.00000011 cm (Relativistic Eq. 6)

The Force (F) acting on the Load cell becomes F = 21 grams. (See Section 2.f)

Relativistic prediction
While the telescope with the DEVICE rotates 90º, until it reaches the parallel direction of travel, there should be a progressive length contraction with the corresponding continuous increase in the load indication up to 21 grams.

Results and conclusion
Zero Load cell indication always: during the referred rotation and at the final point (in the direction of travel).
These results unambiguously confirm the Newtonian constancy of Length, which means that the Relativistic Length contraction does not exist.

4. SECOND VERIFICATION OF THE NEWTONIAN CONSTANCY OF LENGTH
Astronomical Experiment (II): Fig. 3a and 3b
This experiment which is performed also in two stages, is based on the galaxies motion toward the so-called Great Attractor.

a) First stage: Astronomical Experiment (IIa), Fig. 3a
DEVICE at right angle of the direction of travel
Based on the coordinates of the Great Attractor center (see following point b), it becomes simple to enter into the telescope computer, the corresponding coordinates at right angle of that direction.
As it is known, the telescope will automatically move to that direction, which will be kept precisely centered during the entire observing session.

Relativistic prediction
No Length contraction at right angle of travel direction (See Sect. 1.b)
Therefore the Load cell should indicate weights (W), which correspond to the law of inclined plane only:
w = G. sin a (Fig. 3a), where: G = 770 grams (weight of upper Glass bar, plus Item 2, Fig. 1).
(e.g.: For a = 0º, 45º and 90º, the corresponding weights (W) become: zero, 545 and 770 grams respectively).
The DEVICE includes a hard polished steel rail and Linear Roller bearings (having a very light preload, and the Rollers are of ball bearing type: Item 1 and 2, Fig. 1). Thus, the corresponding coefficient of friction becomes very low, which practically does not affect the mentioned (W) values. /5/

Results
At right angle of the direction of travel, the results are in complete agreement with the Relativistic prediction: zero length contraction always, confirmed by the fact that loads indicated correspond to weights (W), due to the law of inclined plane exclusively.

b) Second stage: Astronomical Experiment (IIb), Fig. 3b

Device in the direction of travel
As it is known, the motions of galaxies toward the Great Attractor centered on l = 307º, b = 9º, generate the streaming motion at the Sun of 570 ± 60 km/s (minimum speed: 510 km/s). /8, 9, 10, 11/
Entering in the telescope computer, the corresponding equatorial coordinates (RA and DEC) of the above mentioned galactic direction, the telescope will automatically move to that center, which will be kept precisely centered during the entire observing session.

Obviously due to the Earth's orbital speed (29.79 km/s) the referred minimum infall velocity of 510 km/s, will be increased and decreased during the Earth's orbit.
Therefore a minimum value of the Earth's velocity toward the Great Attractor of 480 km/s, will be valid for any Earth's orbital position.
For this velocity (480 km/s), gamma factor (g) becomes 1.000001282 (See Relativistic Eq. 1).
Length at rest L₀ = 22 cm (See Fig. 1)
The Force (F) acting on the Load cell becomes F = 5435 grams (Which is given by the equations detailed under Section 2.f).

Relativistic prediction
While the telescope with the DEVICE, moves toward the Great Attractor center, there should be a progressive length contraction and the corresponding continuous increase in the load indication up to 5435 grams (five thousand four hundred and thirty five grams).

Since the telescope will be continuously pointing to the mentioned supergalactic center during the entire observing session, the referred load of 5435 grams shoud be also continuously indicated at any angle.

Results and conclusion
The Relativistic prediction of length contraction that implicates a continuous Load cell indication of 5435 grams, does not occur at any angle.
The indications correspond to the law of incline plane exclusively. These results unambiguously confirm the Newtonian constancy of length, which means that the Relativistic contraction of length does not exist.

5. THIRD VERIFICATION OF THE NEWTONIAN CONSTANCY OF LENGTH

Astronomical Experiment (III)
This experiment which is performed also in two stages, is based on the Sun's orbital velocity around the Galaxy center.
(First stage: DEVICE at right angle of travel direction. Second stage: DEVICE in the travel direction)
As it is known, the direction of the Sun's motion around the Galaxy center is: l = 90º, b = 0º, with a velocity of 220 km/s. /9,12/

Entering in the telescope computer, the corresponding equatorial coordinates (RA and DEC) of the above mentioned galactic coordinates, the telescope will automatically move to that direction, which will be precisely kept during the entire observing session.
Obviously due to the Earth's orbital speed (29.79 km/s) the referred velocity of 220 km/s, will be increased and
decreased during the Earth's orbit.
Therefore a minimum value of the Earth's velocity, in the mentioned direction of travel, valid for any Earth's orbital position, will be 190 km/s.
For this velocity (190 km/s), gamma factor (g) becomes 1.000000201 (see Relativistic Eq. 1).
The Force (F) acting on the Load cell becomes F = 850 grams (which is given by the equations detailed under
Section 2.f.). (Obviously this is the Relativistic prediction)
Using the same method indicated in the above mentioned Astronomical experiment (II) the following results and conclusion are obtained.

Results and conclusion
At right angle of the direction of travel, the results are in complete agreement with the relativistic prediction: zero length contraction always, confirmed by the fact that loads indicated correspond to weights (W), due to the law of inclined plane exclusively:
W = G . sin a

In the direction of travel, the Load cell indications correspond to the weights of the law of inclined plane exclusively, exactly the same as mentioned above, at right angle of travel direction.
The Relativistic prediction of length contraction and corresponding Load cell indication of 850 grams, which should be continously pointed out at any angle does not occur, confirming thus the constancy of length by exclusive reason of the velocity, which means that the Relativistic contraction of length does not exist.

6. CONSEQUENCES OF THE NEWTONIAN CONSTANCY OF LENGTH
Each one of the astronomical experiments I, II, and III, detailed above, unambiguously confirms the Newtonian constancy of length, which means that the Relativistic contraction of length does not exist.

Consequently the Relativistic formula for length contraction: L = L₀ /g becomes erroneous in the full range of velocities: from nonzero speed up to the speed of light (c), implicating small errors for small speeds, and increasing errors at higher velocities.

Once the Newtonian constancy of length is confirmed, which means that the relativistic length contraction does not exist, it becomes simple the demonstration of the Newtonian constancy of time and mass, since the Relativistic time dilation and mass increase are derived from the erroneous length contraction.

a) Lorentz transformations /1,2,3,/
Since Lorentz transformations are based on the length contraction, which is erroneous in the full range of velocities (as detailed in above sections), then Lorentz transformations become also erroneous in the same full range.

In fact,
Galilean-Newtonian trasformations (equations)
(See Fig. 4)

x' = x - vt
t' = t
y' = y
z' = z

(9a)
(9b)

Lorentz transformations (equations)
By substituting x' / g (length contraction) for x' in the Newtonian Eq. (9a), the result is the Lorentz transformation: Eq. (10a).
This is the basic half of the Lorentz transformations. The other half: Eq. (10b) is derived from the Relativistic postulate of symmetry, which requires that the form of transformation from S to S' be identical to that from S' to S. /2/

x' = g (x - vt)
t' = g (t - vx/c²)
y' = y
z' = z (10a)
(10b)

As it is known, Lorentz transformations (equations) have been created in order that the velocity addition would never give values greater than the speed of light (c). See following example.

EXAMPLE
If from a spacecraft departing from the Earth at v = 0.8 c, is launched a missile with the same speed and direction, the resultant velocity of the missile with respect to Earth will be: 0.8 c + 0.8 c = 1.6 c
This logical Newtonian value is not accepted by Relativity, because the mentioned resultant velocity is greater than c. (See Section 1.a)
However this objection is not valid, since the velocity of light c, is not a speed limit. (See Section 7.b)

By Lorentz transformations the corresponding resultant velocity becomes: 0.975 c, which is in agreement with Relativity. /2/
However, this result (0.975 c), apart of being illogical, is also incorrect, since as detailed above, Lorentz transformations are derived from the length contraction which is erroneous in the full range of velocities. Consequently Lorentz transformations become also erroneous in the same full range.

b) Time dilation (See Section 1.c) /2,3/
Time dilation is derived from the Lorentz transformations, that in turn are derived from the Relativistic length contraction.
As demonstrated above, the Relativistic length contraction does not exist, and its corresponding formula is erroneous in the full range of velocities.
Consequently, Lorentz transformations and time dilation become also erroneus in the same full range
of velocities too.

ADDITIONAL CONFIRMATION OF THE NEWTONIAN CONSTANCY OF TIME
Very precise determination of the Newtonian Constancy of Time, due to the fact of performing it at a very high velocity during very long time.
It consists in the installation (with the special precautions detailed below), of an atomic clock in the International Space Station, where the Relativistic time dilation should occur at a rate of 10 milliseconds (10000 microseconds) per year, if the Relativistic Time dilation were true.
As it is known, this value can be measured correctly.
The special precaution referred to, consists in a precise determination (prior to the mentioned experiment), of the exclusive influence of the accelerating and decelerating period, on the atomic clock, on board of the Space shuttle, for installing and retrieving it from the Space station.

c) Mass increase (See Section 1.d) /3/
The Relativistic mass increase is derived from a correct equation ( f = ma), where the erroneous Lorentz transformations and time dilation have been applied.
Consequently, the Relativistic mass increase becomes also erroneous in the referred full range of velocities too.

7. CONSEQUENCES OF THE NEWTONIAN CONSTANCY OF MASS

a) The Newtonian formula for kinetic energy is valid at any velocity
Since mass is constant at any velocity, the classical demonstration of the referred Newtonian equation, becomes valid at any speed.

b) Cosmic Rays velocities exceed considerably the speed of light (c)
It is well known that individual cosmic particles with energies as high as 10²⁰ eV have been detected. /13,14,15,16/
Considering now, a cosmic ray proton, having a kinetic energy of

E_kin = 10¹⁴ eV = 160.2 erg (Proton rest mass: 1.6726 x 10 ^-24 g)

Then, from Newtonian Eq. (12),

v = 13.84 x 10 ¹² cm/s = 461 c. (c = 2.99792 x 10 ¹⁰ cm/s)

This velocity which exceeds 461 times the speed of light, is not the maximum cosmic speed, taking into account that higher individual energies have been detected.

c) Consequently, the velocity of light (c), is not a speed limit.

d) The so-called "spectacular confirmation of a great increase in mass, in modern particle accelerators", is not correct.
Since mass is constant at any velocity, the reason for the extraordinary magnetic field required to maintain particles in orbit, is the extraordinary particles velocity exceeding the speed of light.

For instance, the corresponding velocity for a proton accelerated up to a kinetic energy of 10¹² eV (at the Tevatron), which is given by the Newtonian Eq. (12), becomes: v = 46 c

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Copyright © 1998 / 2011, Jorge J.H.SAMRA

ISBN 950-43-9983-5
Mechanical and Electrical Engineer
LA PLATA National University, Argentina
Suipacha 1274 (1011) Buenos Aires - Argentina